347 Pages · 3.01 mb ·
Law
- Preface (Page 6) - Contents (Page 8) - Contributors (Page 10) - 1: Foundations (Page 11) - 1.1 What Is Law? (Page 11) - 1.1.1 Some Characteristics of Law (Page 11) - 1.1.2 Law and Morality (Page 13) - 1.1.2.1 Differences Between Law and Morality (Page 13) - 1.1.2.2 Positive and Critical Morality (Page 14) - 1.1.2.3 Legal Certainty (Page 14) - 1.2 Roman Law (Page 15) - 1.2.1 Tribal Customary Law (Page 16) - 1.2.2 Codification (Page 17) - 1.2.3 Praetor and Iudex (Page 18) - 1.2.4 The Corpus Iuris Civilis (Page 18) - 1.3 Common Law (Page 19) - 1.3.1 Royal Justices (Page 19) - 1.3.2 Precedent (Page 20) - 1.3.3 Equity (Page 21) - 1.4 Ius Commune (Page 23) - 1.5 National States and Codification (Page 24) - 1.5.1 Codification (Page 25) - 1.5.2 Interpretation (Page 27) - 1.6 Legal Families (Page 28) - 1.7 From National to Transnational Laws (Page 29) - 1.7.1 Human Rights (Page 29) - 1.7.2 European Union Law (Page 30) - 1.7.3 Lex Mercatoria (Page 31) - 1.7.4 Transnational Law (Page 31) - Recommended Literature (Page 32) - 2: Sources of Law (Page 33) - 2.1 Sources of Origin (Page 33) - 2.2 Sources of Validity (Page 34) - 2.2.1 Social Rules (Page 35) - 2.2.2 Institutional Rules (Page 35) - 2.2.3 Sources of Validity, a Schema (Page 36) - 2.2.4 The Sources Thesis (Page 38) - 2.3 Legislation (Page 38) - 2.3.1 Layers of Law (Page 39) - 2.3.2 Principles to Deal with Rule Conflicts (Page 40) - 2.4 Treaties (Page 41) - 2.5 Case Law (Page 42) - 2.5.1 Civil Law Tradition (Page 42) - 2.5.2 Common Law Tradition (Page 43) - 2.6 Customary Law (Page 44) - 2.7 Legal Doctrine and Reason (Page 45) - Recommended Literature (Page 46) - 3: Basic Concepts of Law (Page 47) - 3.1 Fields of Law (Page 47) - 3.1.1 Public Law and Private Law (Page 47) - 3.1.1.1 Public Law (Page 48) - 3.1.1.2 European Union Law (Page 48) - 3.1.2 Substantive and Procedural Laws (Page 49) - 3.1.3 ``Functional´´ Fields of Law (Page 49) - 3.2 Rules, Operative Facts, and Legal Effects (Page 50) - 3.3 Legal Subjects (Page 52) - 3.4 Juridical Acts (Page 53) - 3.5 Duties and Rights (Page 54) - 3.5.1 Duties, Prohibitions, and Permissions (Page 54) - 3.5.2 Rights (Page 56) - 3.5.2.1 Claims and Obligations (Page 56) - 3.5.2.2 Rights Regarding an Object (Page 57) - 3.5.2.3 Liberty Rights (Page 57) - 3.6 Summary (Page 58) - Recommended Literature (Page 59) - 4: The Law of Contract (Page 60) - 4.1 Introduction (Page 60) - 4.2 Sources of Contract Law (Page 61) - 4.2.1 Rules Made by the Contracting Parties (Page 62) - 4.2.2 Official National, European and Supranational Rules (Page 62) - 4.2.3 Informal Rules (Page 64) - 4.3 Formation of a Binding Contract (Page 64) - 4.3.1 From a Promise to a Binding Contract (Page 64) - 4.3.2 Offer and Acceptance (Page 66) - 4.3.2.1 Offer (Page 67) - 4.3.2.2 Revocation (Page 68) - 4.3.2.3 Acceptance (Page 68) - 4.3.3 Formalities and Protection of the Weaker Party (Page 68) - 4.3.4 Precontractual Liability (Page 70) - 4.4 The Contents of the Contract (Page 71) - 4.4.1 Interpretation (Page 71) - 4.4.2 Unfairness of Contract Terms (Page 72) - 4.4.3 Prohibited Contracts (Page 74) - 4.5 Remedies of the Parties (Page 75) - 4.5.1 Performance (Page 75) - 4.5.1.1 Civil Law Approach (Page 75) - 4.5.1.2 Common Law Approach (Page 76) - 4.5.2 Damages for Nonperformance (Page 77) - 4.5.3 Termination for Nonperformance (Page 78) - 4.6 Outlook (Page 78) - Recommended Literature (Page 79) - 5: Property Law (Page 80) - 5.1 Property Rights and Property Law (Page 80) - 5.1.1 Property Rights (Page 80) - 5.1.2 Property Law as a Cornerstone of (Private) Law (Page 81) - 5.1.3 Central Questions (Page 82) - 5.2 Why Property Rights? (Page 82) - 5.3 Property Rights in Civil Law and Common Law (Page 83) - 5.3.1 Civil Law Property Law (Page 84) - 5.3.1.1 Ownership, Possession, and Detentorship (Page 84) - 5.3.1.2 Away from the Feudal System (Page 85) - 5.3.1.3 Ownership (Page 86) - 5.3.2 Common Law Property Law (Page 88) - 5.3.2.1 Land Law (Page 88) - 5.3.2.2 Personal Property Law (Page 89) - 5.3.3 Equity (Page 90) - 5.4 Primary Rights to Use and for Security (Page 91) - 5.4.1 Primary Rights to Use and Its Limitations (Page 91) - 5.4.2 Primary Right for Security Purposes (Page 91) - 5.5 Secondary Property Rights (Page 93) - 5.5.1 Secondary Rights to Use (Page 93) - 5.5.2 Secondary Security Rights (Page 94) - 5.6 Principles of Property Law (Page 95) - 5.6.1 The Principle of Numerus Clausus (Page 95) - 5.6.2 The Principle of Specificity (Page 96) - 5.6.3 The Principle of Publicity (Page 97) - 5.6.3.1 Land (Page 97) - 5.6.3.2 Movable Objects (Page 98) - 5.6.4 The Nemo Dat Rule (Page 98) - 5.6.5 Prior Tempore Rule (Page 99) - 5.6.6 Specific Protection (Page 100) - 5.6.7 The Rule of Accessority (Page 101) - 5.7 Creation, Transfer, and Termination of Property Rights (Page 102) - 5.7.1 Creation (Page 102) - 5.7.2 Transfer (Page 103) - 5.7.2.1 Transfer and Publicity (Page 103) - 5.7.2.2 Transfer of Claims (Page 105) - 5.7.3 Termination (Page 106) - 5.8 European Union Property Law (Page 106) - Recommended Literature (Page 108) - 6: Tort Law (Page 109) - 6.1 The Domain of Tort (Page 109) - 6.1.1 Contract Law and Penal Law (Page 110) - 6.1.2 Tort and Torts (Page 110) - 6.2 The Functions of Tort Law and the Grounds of Tort Liability (Page 111) - 6.2.1 Functions of Tort Law (Page 111) - 6.2.1.1 Fault Liability (Page 111) - 6.2.1.2 Strict Liability (Page 112) - 6.2.2 The Grounds for Tort Liability (Page 113) - 6.2.3 Fault Liability and Strict Liability (Page 113) - 6.2.3.1 Fault Liability (Page 113) - 6.2.3.2 Movement Towards Strict Liability (Page 113) - 6.3 Liability for One´s Own Fault; the Common Law Approach (Page 114) - 6.3.1 Duties of Care (Page 114) - 6.3.2 The Learned Hand Formula (Page 115) - 6.4 Liability for One´s Own Fault: The Civil Law Approach (Page 116) - 6.4.1 Unlawfulness (Page 116) - 6.4.2 The Cellar Hatch Case (Page 117) - 6.4.3 Intermezzo: Law and Efficiency (Page 119) - 6.5 Liability for Damage Caused by Other Persons (Page 120) - 6.6 Strict Liability (Page 122) - 6.6.1 Railroads and the Development of Strict Liability (Page 123) - 6.6.2 Traffic Liability (Page 124) - 6.6.2.1 The Regime of the Dutch Road Traffic Act (Page 124) - 6.6.2.2 The Loi Badinter (Page 124) - 6.6.3 Liability for Things in French Law (Page 125) - 6.7 Damage (Page 126) - 6.8 Some Conclusions: Who Is My Neighbor in Law? (Page 128) - Recommended Literature (Page 128) - 7: Criminal Law (Page 129) - 7.1 Introduction: The Nature and Function of Criminal Law (Page 129) - 7.2 Which Conduct Ought to Be Criminal? The Criminalization Debate (Page 132) - 7.3 Theories of Legal Punishment (Page 134) - 7.3.1 Utilitarian Theories (Page 135) - 7.3.2 Retributive Theories (Page 136) - 7.4 The Structure of a Crime (Page 137) - 7.4.1 The Actus Reus and Mens Rea Dichotomy (Page 137) - 7.4.2 Two Frameworks for Assessing Criminal Liability (Page 138) - 7.4.2.1 The Bipartite Structure of Crime (Page 138) - 7.4.2.2 The Tripartite Structure of Crime (Page 138) - 7.5 Actus Reus: Commission Versus Omission (Page 139) - 7.5.1 Offenses of Commission (Page 140) - 7.5.2 Criminal Omissions: Liability in the Absence of Action (Page 141) - 7.5.2.1 Offenses of Failing to Act (Page 141) - 7.5.2.2 Commission by Omission (Page 142) - 7.6 Mens Rea or the Subjective Element (Page 143) - 7.6.1 Intention (Page 144) - 7.6.2 Conditional Intent Versus Recklessness (Page 145) - 7.6.3 Negligence (Page 146) - 7.7 Justifications and Excuses (Page 147) - 7.7.1 Self-defense (Page 148) - 7.7.2 Insanity (Page 149) - 7.8 Criminal Attempts (Page 150) - 7.9 Criminal Substantive Law and Criminal Procedural Law (Page 152) - 7.10 The Basic Structure of the Criminal Process (Page 154) - 7.10.1 Investigations (Page 154) - 7.10.2 Trial (Page 155) - 7.11 Adversarial or Inquisitorial? (Page 155) - 7.11.1 Historical Patterns (Page 156) - 7.11.2 Quest for Truth (Page 157) - 7.11.3 Hybrid Contemporary Systems (Page 157) - 7.11.4 Progressive Convergence (Page 158) - 7.12 Basic Principles of Criminal Justice Systems, the Presumption of Innocence (Page 159) - 7.12.1 Tension Between Security and Liberty (Page 159) - 7.12.2 Presumption of Innocence (Page 159) - 7.13 Fair Trial and Proportionality (Page 161) - Conclusion (Page 162) - Recommended Literature (Page 164) - 8: Constitutional Law (Page 165) - 8.1 State Power Established (Page 165) - 8.1.1 Introduction (Page 165) - 8.1.1.1 Sources of Constitutional Law (Page 166) - 8.1.1.2 Three Themes (Page 167) - 8.1.2 Sovereignty (Page 167) - 8.1.2.1 Internal Sovereignty (Page 168) - 8.1.2.2 External Sovereignty (Page 169) - 8.1.3 Nation States (Page 170) - 8.1.4 Globalization and International Integration (Page 171) - 8.2 State Power Constrained (Page 173) - 8.2.1 Territorial Division of State Power (Page 175) - 8.2.1.1 Unitary States (Page 175) - 8.2.1.2 Federations (Page 175) - 8.2.1.3 Confederations (Page 176) - 8.2.2 Functional Division of State Power (Page 176) - 8.2.3 Independent Courts (Page 178) - 8.2.4 Parliaments and Governments (Page 179) - 8.2.4.1 Parliamentary Systems (Page 180) - 8.2.4.2 Presidential Systems (Page 180) - 8.2.4.3 Semipresidential Systems (Page 181) - 8.2.5 Checks and Balances (Page 181) - 8.2.6 The Rule of Law (Page 182) - 8.2.7 Fundamental Rights (Page 183) - 8.2.7.1 Codification of Fundamental Rights (Page 183) - 8.2.7.2 Interpretation of Fundamental Rights (Page 184) - 8.2.8 Judicial Review (Page 185) - 8.2.8.1 Reasons for Judicial Review of Legislation (Page 186) - 8.2.8.2 Decentralized Systems (Page 186) - 8.2.8.3 Centralized Systems (Page 187) - 8.2.8.4 Types of Review (Page 187) - 8.2.8.5 European Union (Page 187) - 8.2.8.6 Judicial Review by Specialized Courts (Page 188) - 8.3 State Power Democratized (Page 188) - 8.3.1 Direct and Indirect Democracies (Page 189) - 8.3.1.1 Direct Democracy (Page 190) - 8.3.1.2 Representative Democracy (Page 190) - 8.3.2 Authoritarian Government (Page 192) - 8.3.2.1 Drawbacks (Page 193) - 8.3.2.2 Advantages (Page 193) - 8.3.3 Election Systems (Page 194) - 8.3.3.1 Franchise (Page 194) - 8.3.3.2 Majority Systems (Page 194) - 8.3.3.3 Proportional Representation (Page 195) - 8.3.4 Final Comment (Page 196) - Recommended Literature (Page 196) - 9: Administrative Law (Page 197) - 9.1 What Is Administrative Law? (Page 197) - 9.1.1 From Police State to Welfare State (Page 197) - 9.1.2 Multilayer Governance (Page 198) - 9.1.3 Various Instruments and Powers to Protect the General Interest (Page 199) - 9.1.4 The Administration Within the Trias Politica (Page 200) - 9.1.5 Questions (Page 200) - 9.2 Public Powers: Rule of Law and Legality Principle (Page 202) - 9.3 Procedural Rules and Substantive Requirements for the Use of Public Power: The General Principles of Administrative Law (Page 203) - 9.3.1 Rationale of the General Principles: Preventing Abuse of Discretionary Power (Page 203) - 9.3.2 Which Are the Most Important General Principles of Administrative Law? (Page 204) - 9.3.2.1 Procedural Principles (Page 205) - 9.3.2.2 Substantive Principles (Page 205) - 9.4 Judicial Review of Administrative Action (Page 206) - 9.4.1 The Power of the Judiciary to Review Administrative Acts (Page 207) - 9.4.2 The Function of Administrative Justice (Page 209) - 9.4.2.1 The View on Administrative Law in the United Kingdom (Page 209) - 9.4.2.2 Recours Objectif (Page 209) - 9.4.2.3 Recours Subjectif (Page 210) - 9.5 Organization of Judicial Review in Administrative Dispute (Page 210) - 9.5.1 Preliminary Objection (Page 211) - 9.5.2 Specialized Administrative Courts (Page 211) - 9.5.3 What Is an ``Administrative Dispute´´? The Public/Private Divide (Page 212) - 9.6 Standing (Page 213) - 9.7 Remedies (Page 214) - 9.7.1 Annulment (Page 215) - 9.7.2 Performance (Page 215) - Conclusion (Page 216) - Recommended Literature (Page 217) - 10: The Law of Europe (Page 218) - 10.1 Introduction (Page 218) - 10.1.1 Early History and Overview (Page 218) - 10.2 From ECSC to EU (Page 220) - 10.2.1 The ECSC (Page 220) - 10.2.2 The EEC (Page 221) - 10.2.3 The European Union (Page 222) - 10.3 Sources of EU Law (Page 223) - 10.3.1 Secondary EU Law (Page 223) - 10.3.2 The Ordinary Legislative Procedure (Page 224) - 10.4 Main Institutions of the EU (Page 225) - 10.4.1 The Commission (Page 225) - 10.4.2 The European Parliament (Page 226) - 10.4.3 The Council of Ministers (Page 227) - 10.4.4 The European Council (Page 228) - 10.4.5 The Court of Justice of the European Union (Page 228) - 10.5 The Internal Market (Page 229) - 10.5.1 Advantages of Free Trade (Page 229) - 10.5.2 Free Movement of Goods (Page 230) - 10.5.3 Free Movement of Persons (Page 231) - 10.5.4 Free Movement of Services (Page 232) - 10.5.5 Free Movement of Capital (Page 233) - 10.6 Limitation of Sovereignty (Page 234) - 10.6.1 Introduction (Page 234) - 10.6.2 The Crisis (Page 235) - 10.6.3 Sovereignty and Direct Effect (Page 236) - 10.6.3.1 Sovereignty (Page 236) - 10.6.3.2 Law from International or EU Origin (Page 237) - 10.6.4 Van Gend and Loos and Costa/ENEL (Page 238) - 10.6.4.1 Van Gend and Loos (Page 238) - 10.6.4.2 Costa Versus ENEL (Page 241) - 10.6.5 Subsidiarity and the Requirement of Legal Basis (Page 242) - 10.6.6 The Principle of Loyalty (Page 243) - 10.6.7 Euroskepticism (Page 244) - 10.6.8 Sovereignty and the Debt Crisis (Page 245) - Recommended Literature (Page 246) - 11: International Law (Page 247) - 11.1 Introduction (Page 247) - 11.1.1 The Topics of International Law (Page 248) - 11.2 Participants in the International Legal System (Page 250) - 11.2.1 States (Page 250) - 11.2.1.1 Expanding Circle of States (Page 250) - 11.2.1.2 Sovereignty (Page 251) - 11.2.2 International Organizations (Page 252) - 11.2.2.1 Powers of International Organizations (Page 252) - 11.2.2.2 IGOs and International Law (Page 253) - 11.2.3 The United Nations (Page 253) - 11.2.3.1 General Assembly (Page 253) - 11.2.3.2 Committees and Specialized Agencies (Page 254) - 11.2.3.3 The Security Council (Page 254) - 11.2.3.4 International Court of Justice (Page 255) - 11.2.3.5 UN Secretariat and Secretary-General (Page 255) - 11.2.4 Multinational Enterprises (Page 256) - 11.2.5 Nongovernmental Organizations (Page 256) - 11.2.6 Individuals (Page 257) - 11.3 Sources of International Law (Page 258) - 11.3.1 Treaties (Page 259) - 11.3.2 Ius Cogens (Page 259) - 11.4 Jurisdiction (Page 260) - 11.5 Characteristics of International Law (Page 261) - 11.5.1 Institutional Framework (Page 261) - 11.5.2 Enforcement (Page 262) - 11.6 Trends in the Development of International Law (Page 262) - 11.6.1 From Prohibition of Interference in Internal Affairs to Responsibility to Protect (Page 262) - 11.6.2 From Immunity to Universal Jurisdiction (Page 263) - 11.6.3 From Nationality as a Favor to a Right to Citizenship (Page 264) - Conclusion (Page 265) - Recommended Literature (Page 265) - 12: Human Rights (Page 266) - 12.1 Introduction (Page 266) - 12.2 The Historical Development of the Idea of Human Rights (Page 267) - 12.2.1 Roots (Page 268) - 12.2.2 Decline Under the Influence of a ``Scientific´´ World View (Page 268) - 12.2.3 Revival After the Second World War (Page 268) - 12.2.4 Human Rights Treaties (Page 269) - 12.2.5 Constitutional Human Rights (Page 270) - 12.3 The Uses of Human Rights (Page 270) - 12.3.1 Human Rights as Positive Law (Page 271) - 12.3.2 Rights as Moral Ideals (Page 271) - 12.3.3 Rights as Standards (Page 272) - 12.3.4 Rights as a Political Language (Page 273) - 12.4 The Right Holders (Page 273) - 12.4.1 What Counts as Human? (Page 273) - 12.4.2 Universality and Relativism (Page 275) - 12.5 Duties (Page 275) - 12.5.1 Who Are the Duty Bearers? (Page 275) - 12.5.2 Types of Duties (Page 276) - 12.5.3 The Focus on Rights (Page 278) - 12.6 The Content of the Rights (Page 279) - 12.6.1 The Importance of Human Rights (Page 279) - 12.6.2 Rights to Integrity of the Person (Page 280) - 12.6.3 Freedom Rights (Page 281) - 12.6.4 Political Rights (Page 282) - 12.6.5 Socioeconomic Rights (Page 282) - 12.6.6 Equality and Nondiscrimination Provisions (Page 283) - 12.6.7 Fair Trial and Administration of Justice (Page 283) - 12.6.8 The Interdependence and Indivisibility of Rights (Page 284) - 12.7 The Boundaries of Human Rights (Page 285) - 12.7.1 Rights as Trumps? (Page 285) - 12.7.2 Conflict of Rights (Page 285) - 12.7.3 Limitations (Page 287) - 12.7.4 Exceptions (Page 288) - 12.7.5 Derogations in Time of Emergency (Page 288) - 12.8 Protection of Human Rights (Page 289) - 12.8.1 Protection by Courts (Page 289) - 12.8.2 Protection by Political Bodies (Page 290) - 12.8.3 Protection by Experts (Page 290) - Conclusion (Page 291) - Recommended Literature (Page 291) - 13: Elements of Procedural Law (Page 292) - 13.1 Introduction (Page 292) - 13.1.1 Alternative Dispute Resolution (Page 292) - 13.1.2 The Judiciary, Courts (Page 293) - 13.1.3 Overview (Page 294) - 13.2 Institutional Principles (Page 294) - 13.2.1 Judicial Independence (Page 294) - 13.2.1.1 Appointment for Life (Page 295) - 13.2.1.2 Judicial Budget (Page 295) - 13.2.1.3 Contempt of Court (Page 295) - 13.2.2 Judicial Impartiality (Page 295) - 13.2.2.1 Recruitment (Page 295) - 13.2.2.2 Remuneration (Page 296) - 13.2.2.3 Exemption and Challenge (Page 296) - 13.2.2.4 Private Life (Page 297) - 13.3 Procedural Principles (Page 297) - 13.3.1 Access to Justice (Page 297) - 13.3.1.1 Scope (Page 298) - 13.3.1.2 Legal Aid (Page 298) - 13.3.1.3 No Cure No Pay (Page 299) - 13.3.1.4 Excessive Formalism (Page 299) - 13.3.1.5 Periods for Legal Remedies (Page 299) - 13.3.2 Fair Hearing: Fair Trial (Page 300) - 13.3.2.1 Audiatur Et Altera Pars (Page 300) - 13.3.2.2 Right to Equality of Arms (Page 301) - 13.3.2.3 Right to Be Present at Trial (Page 302) - 13.3.2.4 Right to an Oral Hearing (Page 302) - 13.3.2.5 Right to Produce Evidence (Page 303) - 13.3.2.6 Right to a Reasoned Judgment (Page 303) - 13.3.3 Public Hearing and Public Pronouncement of the Judgment (Page 304) - 13.3.4 Judgment Within a Reasonable Time (Page 305) - 13.3.5 Right to Enforcement (Page 305) - 13.4 Some General Aspects of Procedures (Page 306) - 13.4.1 Jurisdiction (Page 306) - 13.4.1.1 Territorial Jurisdiction (Page 306) - 13.4.1.2 Jurisdiction Ratione Materiae (Page 306) - 13.4.1.3 National Jurisdiction (Page 307) - 13.4.2 Standing (Page 307) - 13.4.3 Representation by a Lawyer (Page 308) - 13.4.4 Commencement of Proceedings (Page 309) - 13.4.4.1 Document Initiating the Procedure (Page 309) - 13.4.4.2 Additional Issues (Page 310) - 13.4.5 The Ordinary Course of Proceedings (Page 310) - 13.4.5.1 Trial (Page 311) - 13.4.5.2 Pleadings (Page 311) - 13.4.5.3 Discovery and Disclosure (Page 311) - 13.4.5.4 Funnel Model (Page 311) - 13.4.5.5 Juries (Page 312) - 13.4.6 Law of Evidence (Page 312) - 13.4.6.1 Evidence and Trial (Page 312) - 13.4.6.2 Privileges (Page 312) - 13.4.6.3 Means of Evidence (Page 312) - 13.4.6.4 Value of Evidence (Page 313) - 13.4.6.5 Standards of Assessment (Page 313) - 13.4.6.6 Burden of Proof (Page 313) - 13.4.7 The Role of the Court and the Parties in Litigation (Page 314) - 13.4.7.1 Adversarial and Inquisitorial Procedures (Page 314) - 13.4.7.2 Case Management (Page 315) - 13.4.8 Legal Remedies (Page 315) - 13.4.8.1 Appeal (Page 316) - 13.4.8.2 Cassation (Page 316) - Conclusion (Page 316) - Recommended Literature (Page 316) - 14: Philosophy of Law (Page 317) - 14.1 What Is Philosophy of Law? (Page 317) - 14.2 Hart: Law as System (Page 318) - 14.2.1 Introduction (Page 318) - 14.2.1.1 The Concept of Law (Page 319) - 14.2.1.2 Primary and Secondary Rules (Page 319) - 14.2.1.3 A Fallible Theory (Page 319) - 14.2.1.4 A Chain of Rules (Page 320) - 14.2.2 Social Practice as Foundation of Law (Page 320) - 14.2.2.1 The Chain of Validity (Page 320) - 14.2.2.2 The Role of ``Officials´´ (Page 321) - 14.2.2.3 A Practical Application: EU Law (Page 321) - 14.2.2.4 Another Application: Customary Law (Page 322) - 14.2.3 Hart as a Legal Positivist (Page 322) - 14.2.3.1 Positive Law (Page 322) - 14.2.3.2 Legal Positivism (Page 322) - 14.2.3.3 The Separation of Law and Morality (Page 323) - 14.3 Dworkin´s Criticism (Page 323) - 14.3.1 An Example (Page 324) - 14.3.2 Hard Cases, Gaps, and Discretion (Page 325) - 14.3.3 The Donut Theory of Law (Page 326) - 14.4 Fact and Norm (Page 327) - 14.5 Thomas Aquinas: Positive Law and Natural Law (Page 328) - 14.5.1 Common Good (Page 329) - 14.5.2 Law and Reason (Page 329) - 14.5.2.1 Natural Law (Page 329) - 14.5.2.2 Alternatives for Reason (Page 330) - 14.5.3 Positive Law (Page 331) - 14.5.3.1 Positive Law and Natural Law (Page 332) - 14.5.3.2 When Positive Law and Natural Law Conflict (Page 332) - 14.5.4 Rationalist Law (Page 333) - 14.5.4.1 Prudent Rules (Page 333) - 14.5.4.2 Limited Rationality (Page 334) - 14.5.4.3 A Fundamental Difference (Page 334) - 14.6 Thomas Hobbes: Normative Legal Positivism (Page 335) - 14.6.1 The State of Nature According to Hobbes (Page 335) - 14.6.2 The Laws of Nature (Page 336) - 14.6.3 The State (Page 336) - 14.6.3.1 Contracts (Page 336) - 14.6.3.2 Law and State (Page 337) - 14.6.3.3 Positive Law and Natural Law (Page 337) - 14.6.4 Review of Rules Against Legal Principles (Page 338) - Conclusion (Page 338) - Recommended Literature (Page 339) - Index (Page 340)